Shi’ism Essay Example

Shi’ism Essay ‘What is Shi’ism?’ The origin of ‘Shi’ism began after the death of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) with respect to the followers of Ali Ibn Abe Talib (as), the First Imam or the vicegerent of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). In order to understand Shi’ism, we have to comprehend the meaning of a ‘Shi’a’.   The 5th Imam of the ‘Shi’a’ faith, Imam Muhammad al-Baqir (pbuh) once told a student of His, by the name of Jabir Ibn Abdullah Ansari,â€Å"Is it enough for a person to embellish himself as our shia (follower) by professing love for us, the ahl al-bayt?   Nay!   By Allah, a person is not our shi’a unless he fears Allah and obeys Him.   Our followers are only recognized, O Jabir, by their humility; submission; honesty; abundant praise of Allah, fasting and prayers; goodness to their parents; attention to the poor, needy, debtors, and orphans living nearby; speaking of the truth; recitation of the Quran; holding their tongues except for good words; and trustworthiness towards relatives in all affairs† 1Thus, Shiism is consorting to the way of the Holy Quran and the tradition of Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) as passed on by his Progeny whom he (pbuh) authorized (the ahl al-bayt).1 Al-Kafi, al-Kulayni, 2:74`What would you say, overall, are the main characteristics of Shi’ism? `, In accordance to the Shi’a faith, Islam is established on five pillars; Tawheed (Oneness of ALLAH), Adl / Adalat (Justice), Nabuwat / Risalat (Prophet hood), Imamat (Divine appointments), Qayaamat (Judgment Day). Among these 5 pillars, the Shi’a faith differs with the other schools of thought of Islam only in the Imamat (Divine appointments). The Shia faith upholds the conviction that all the messengers of Allah, from Adam (pbuh) to Muhammad (pbuh), with the twelve descendants to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his daughter Lady Fatima al-Zahra (pbut), were infallible all through their whole existence and by no means committed any kind of offense that would displease Allah. The Holy Quran and accepted knowledge mutually demonstrates the significance; the Holy Quran cites infallibility thirteen times.   Allah speaks to Satan: Certainly you shall have no authority over My servants except those who follow you and go astray. 2, to which the Satan replies,† Satan says back to Allah: By Your might, I will surely mislead them all, except Your chosen servants among them (the messengers and the imams).† (Quran 38:82)Another Shi’it belief is ‘intercession’ (shifaah). Shifaah is not to request the Prophet (pbuh) or the imams (pbut) for security or deflect misfortune or to fetch for contentment and triumph.  Instead, it is to reach to Allah, the Almighty in the name of those who are close to Him, like the prophets and the imams.The Shi’a believe the Imam (a.s) to be in ‘Hiding’. Ghayb’ is used in th e context of ‘that isn’t visible’, it does not signify the end of existence. The presence of an Imam in each era is imperative. Thus, if he cannot intuitively be seen then he is in Ghayb and is concealed in the guise of nature. The Shi’it belief of ‘ahl al-bayt-e-Muhammad (pbuh)’, which includes Ali Ibn Abe Talib (a.s.), Fatima al-Zahra (pbut), Hasan Ibn Ali (a.s.), Hussein Ibn Ali (a.s.); this is being referred to those people who were not just related to the messenger of Allah specifically by blood but also most significantly by principles and beliefs. Allah only desires to keep away uncleanliness from you, O People of the House (ahl al-bayt), and to make you as pure as possible.(Qur’an 33:33)2 Quran 15:42‘Does Shi’ism have a distinctive spirit, and what is it that exemplifies that spirit?` Essence of Shi’ism is the same as the essence of true Islam. Shi’a Asna Asharyi or the followers of the 12 Imams have t he same beliefs as to what the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) preached. The Shi’a faith is the lone fiqah that considers Allah (swt) to be chaste, free from making malevolence, immortal, he holds never-ending knowledge, He (swt) is free from embodiment, has no associates is self-governing and controls all. Imam Ali Ibn Abe Talib (a.s.) in his book of sermons, says that,† Praise be to Allah for Whom one condition does not proceed another so that He may be the First before being the Last or He may be Manifest before being Hidden. Everyone called one (alone) save Him is by virtue of being small (in number); and everyone enjoying honor other than Him is humble. Every powerful person other than Him is weak. Every master (owner) other than Him is slave (owned).† (Nahjul Balagha, Sermon 65)In the farewell sermon at Arafat Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) stated, I am leaving you two weighty things, if you follow them you will never go astray, they are the Quran and my ahl al-bayt . (Sah ih al-Tirmidhi, v5, page 662-663) The only ‘fiqah’ of Muslims that have adhered to the mentioned two basics as an everlasting form of direction are identified as the Shia. It is in honor of the Shia of Ali that Allah (swt) sent the subsequent revelation: Those who believe and do righteous deeds are the best of the creatures. Their reward from their Lord shall be everlasting gardens, below which flow rivers, they will abide there forever. Well pleased is God with them and they are well pleased with Him.† (The Holy Quran 98:7) A number of Sunni researchers have confirmed that when this verse was sent down the Holy Prophet proclaimed,† I swear by the one who controls my life that this man (Ali) and his Shia shall secure deliverance on the day of resurrection.3`What would you say are the highlights or major turning points in Shi’it history?` One cannot pin-point a single period for this; for that one has to go back to the time of ‘Migration to Medin a’ from Makkah. Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) made brothers of himself and Imam Ali (a.s.). He said,’ You are in the same position with relation to me as Aaron was with Moses, except that there will be no prophet after me. 4 The battle of Khyber, when the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) gave his flag to Ali (a.s) and Allah blessed victory at his (a.s) hand for Allah and His Messenger loved him. The events of Mubahila and Ghadeer-e-Khum, declaring Ali Ibn Abe Talib (a.s)’s succession and infallibility of the ‘ahl al-bayt’.   The occasion of Ghadeer has a lot of significance in the Shi’it history, for it was when the succession to the Prophet hood was bestowed on Ali Ibn Abe Talib (a.s). O Apostle! Deliver what has been sent down to you from your Lord; and if you dont do it, you have not delivered His message (at all); and Allah will protect you from the people (Quran 5:67)   and after the declaration of Imam Ali (a.s.)’s successor ship the 2nd ayat was revealed, â€Å"Today I have completed for you the religion, and favored you with my bounty, and accepted Islam for you as the religion. (Quran 5:3 )3   Tafsir Ibne Jarir, Volume 33 page 146 (Cairo edition) narrated from Hadhrath Muhammad bin Ali (as)4 Sahih Bukhari, Book on Outstanding Traits, hadith #3430; Battles hadith #4064The events that occurred after the death of Holy Prophet (pbuh) divided Islam into 2 factions; one of Amir Muwa’yah and the other of Imam Ali Ibn Abe Talib (a.s.). The atrocities against the ‘ahl al-bayt’ , led to the event of Karbala, which signifies the sacrifice of a leader, who forfeited his household and the lives of his dear ones to save Islam from the clutches of Yazid Ibn Muwa’yah. Shi’ism took a new turn in history in the time of the 6th Imam of Shi’a Fiqah, Imam Jafar ibn Muhammad al-Sadiq (a.s.) who lived from 83 h. to 148 h.   The 6th Imam was presented with a golden chance to put together and reach to the masses with the tradition of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his family (pbut).   Once, four thousand scholars, Quranic commentators, historians, and philosophers were his students in Medina. Thus, he passed down the genuine traditions of the Holy Quran and the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and resolved in what is now al-fiqh al-jafari, the Jafari jurisprudence.`What is the difference between Sunni and Shi’a, and why is there so much trouble between them?` The Shi’a and Sunni schools of thought hold opposing views chiefly in jurisprudence and hence the basic teachings differ from each other. Though both schools of thought believe in the Oneness of Allah, Justice, Prophet Hood, Day of Judgment, the Holy Book, but their teachings differ in many ways. The discipline of ahl al-bayt upholds that the succession to prophet hood or the office of imamah is a divine office – signifying that the imam or khalifah has to be chosen and declared by Alla h unswervingly, as this office embraces the equal implication as that of prophet hood.   People are as a result ruled by Allah to follow exact heir (imams) subsequent to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).  Further schools of thought articulate that the imamah is decided by shura (election) and that this system was used to decide the succession to the Holy Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).  In contrast, the Shia fiqah believes that the notion of shura was by no means completely endorsed.   Now, Shi’a are those who consider Imam Ali (a.s.) as the First Imam and Rightful successor of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and follow the 12 infallible Imams. While Sunnis follow the 4 Caliphs, among whom the First one is,   Hazarat Abu Bakr Siddique (rz), Second is Hazarat Umar Farooq (rz), third is Hazarat Usman Ghani (rz), and lastly the fourth Caliph, Ali Ibn Abe Talib (a.s). Several verses in the Holy Quran submit to the reality that, all the way through history, Allah alone has the right to declare an imam or a khalifah for humanity. And remember when your Lord said to the angels, â€Å"Verily, I am going to place [mankind] a successor (khalifah) on the earth. (Quran 2:30)While a learned Muslim researcher has said, those who dare to cause dissection between the Shia and the Sunnis are neither Shi’a nor Sunni. Owing to a deficiency of apparent information, the Shia imamiyyah school of thought has till now been a phenomenon to a lot of Muslims. A number of Muslims have been pleased to ascertain the reality of Shi’a Islam from trustworthy resources.   On the other hand, the adversaries of Islam have established that the greatest approach to defame Islam and upset the tranquility contained by the Muslim population is to support the splitting up of both factions and sectarianism.   Thus,   innumerable unconstructive and fake anecdotes with no foundation in the genuine manuscripts of the Shi’a school of thought have been broadcasted. These anecdo tes have two sources:   hostility towards Islam in connection with those who formulate them, and lack of knowledge in connection with those who accept as the truth and broadcast them.’ And when it is said to them, Come to what Allah has revealed and to the Messenger, they say, Enough for us is that which we found our fathers following, even though their fathers had no knowledge whatsoever and no guidance.’   (Qur’an 5:104) ‘When it is said to them, Follow what Allah has sent down, they say, Nay!   We shall follow what we found our fathers following.   Would they do that even though their fathers did not understand anything, nor were they guided?’   (Qur’an 2:170)ConclusionLastly, I would like to say that historical information or jurisprudential disparities ought to put off Muslim harmony as the greater part of Muslim scholars from all schools of thought have the same opinion on alike historical facts. Discrepancies amid the academi cs, researchers and intellectuals of the schools of thought can be moreover productive or disparaging.   If they show the way to the disintegration of the Muslim nation, then they are intolerable, since the Holy Quran says: But they have broken their religion among them into sects, each group rejoicing in its belief† (Quran 23:53)

Timeless Lessons learnt from previous U.S Conflicts

Timeless Lessons learnt from previous U.S Conflicts The core responsibility of the Department of Defense is to ensure that there is well sustained security and homeland defense in the United States of America. Besides, the department is also charged with the task of overseeing international security issues that may equally pose potential threat to the United States and its citizens (NDS, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Timeless Lessons learnt from previous U.S Conflicts specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As a result, the unparalleled conventional military wing capability is always prepared to counteract any possible attack on the U.S interests both at home and abroad. This has compelled both perceived and real enemies to restructure and find the right balance in the art and science of warfare in order to be resilient enough against United States’ grand strategy on security plan. Additionally, the U.S government in collaboration with its military leadership has quite often endeavored to shape the country’s military capabilities to be stable enough in readiness to fight and win attacks launched by the emerging 21st century enemies. On the other hand, while the U.S. military forces continue to fight insurgency warfare in Iraq and Afghanistan, the same insurgents and other rival nations are integrating modern technology with ancient techniques such as mutiny and terrorism aimed at achieving egocentric political goals. It is imperative to note that countering terrorism requires appropriate strategies as well as preparedness for war at any given time. However, past war events have left trails of defeats and uncertainties due to myriad of factors that should act as lessons in guiding military and political leaders to redirect and reexamine their actions. This essay offers a succinct analysis of some of the prudent lessons that the United States military and political leaders need to learn on past conflicts. Today, the United States g overnment has put in place myriad of strategies aimed at curbing rising rates of revolts and insurgencies. It makes use of its intelligence wing to gather credible information on the strengths and weaknesses of terrorists alongside other forms of enemies. According to General Petraues (2006), one of the key elements of effectively tackling insurgencies is obtaining precise and exact intelligence. Accurate, actionable and timely intelligence reports regarding revolts, planned acts of terror as well as other related security threats have been revealed to the U.S key decision makers and military leaders.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Both internal and external capabilities of all threats to security have been identified by intelligence department. They have used intelligence information gathered to establish grand strategies. However, in order to avoid biasness and mishaps t hat leaders in the past committed, it is crucial for decision makers to come up with sound judgments before engaging in any form of war so that past blunders can be corrected once and for all. Past conflicts have witnessed U.S. military forces being committed to war with little regard of other important factors. Hence, it is highly recommended that decision makers on homeland and foreign security of U.S interests ought to read, understand and follow the Weinberger Doctrine. This doctrine lays out integral parameters that must be met prior to committing the U.S. military forces to war. The Weinberger Doctrine parameters clearly points out that before any act of war, a determining factor such as vital interests of the United States or of one or more of its allies being at stake should be established (Handel, 2001). Additionally, sufficient force should be applied to reflect unequivocally the intention of winning. Moreover, the Weinberger Doctrine highlights the principles of objective and simplicity by emphasizing that political and military goals must be clearly defined and continuously reassessed to keep cause and response in synchronization. Most importantly, before troops are committed to war, there must be a reasonable assurance of support from the American public. Finally, undertaking of a combat role should be done when there are no alternatives and as last resort (Handel, 2001). Clear and well defined objectives depend on accurate knowledge of an enemy’s anatomy and physiology. The success of the grand strategy depends on accurateness and timely intelligence information shared by every participating organization. The lessons learned from the Vietnam War clearly emphasized the importance of having sterling intelligence gathering capabilities in order to shape the U.S. grand strategy. Apparently, the United States decision makers did not have vivid information on the Viet Cong’s strengths and weaknesses. In turn, it led to vague political obj ectives. The United States Armed Forces employed superior air power attacks against Viet Cong and achieved swift military victory. This decisive military victory did not kill the determination of the Viet Cong to fight with the Americans.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Timeless Lessons learnt from previous U.S Conflicts specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Instead, Viet Cong’s army employed the art and science of guerilla warfare against the U.S. military forces. The U.S. decision makers and military leaders continued in ignorance to deliver fly-by responses to counter the Viet Cong attack. The end result was that the number of U.S. casualties started to pile up. The aftermath of Vietnam War has been used as a lesson to the United States decision makers and military leaders about the need for balance mechanism before engaging in any war. During conflicts and times of war, the concept of Clausewitz trinity emphas ized that it is crucial for the government, military and the general public to exercise proper balance (Handel, 2001). It is instructive to note that the United States lost the Vietnam War since its government lost the battle back home. If the United States government intends to succeed in fighting wars abroad, it must first win the battle at home (Gray, 2005). Professor Zimmermann (2011) argues that both senior military and political leaders must be adept and flexible enough in forming winning strategies before going to war. Furthermore, they must be well acquainted with comprehensive knowledge on the art and science of war and how it is supposed to be balanced. Finally, he points out that knowing the enemies’ strategies, societal and cultural weak points as well as their mindset is key to victory (Zimmermann, 2011). The U.S. decision makers and military leaders must deliver clear and achievable objectives. The leadership must incorporate some exit strategy and well-defined end-states when establishing war plans to avoid mistakes made through fly-by responses. The Vietnam War planners violated key doctrines related to the 12 Principles of the Joint Operations which includes the principles of objective, offensive, mass, economy of force, maneuver, unity of command or effort, security, surprise, simplicity, restraint, perseverance, and legitimacy (JP 3-0, 2008). As Handel (2001) observes, one of the ways of achieving political goals is through military victory (Handel, 2001). According to President Bush, military wars are not intended to bring stability or linger for long, but they are meant to be swift with winning purpose (Gordon Trainor, 2006). Additionally, he wanted the force level to be smaller and faster in contrast to the First Gulf War plan (Gordon Trainor, 2006). The Operation Enduring Freedom and the Operation Iraqi Freedom was oriented to military strategy.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Again, with all the show and effort, swift military victories were achieved but the wars failed to attain the much needed peace and tranquility. Lack of intelligence-gathering capabilities on the part of United States caught its leadership off-guard. The disgruntled Iraqis joined the al-Qaeda movement and utilized insurgency warfare to kill Americans. At this point, it is imperative to note that the U.S military forces and her Allies have not been fit enough to fight insurgency warfare largely due to the fact that the US leadership including military leaders have forgotten lessons learned from the Vietnam War. The high-frequency U.S military forces are also not well prepared to fight insurgency. It is vital to reiterate that the Goldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 restructured the U.S. military forces. As such, the United States Armed Forces is known as the Joint Forces, which should be very able to fight against the 21st century enemies and win with ease. Importantly, the U.S. Army under took modularization that integrated it right into the principle of the economy of force (Metz, 2007). As such, the Joint Special Operation Forces (JSOF) has continued to shape its team towards leaner-and-combat ready forces. The JSOF have become essential capabilities for the U.S. Department of Defense through good communication, speed, precision weapons, and accurate and timely Intelligence report afforded at the Sea, Air, and Land. It is through the aforementioned essential capabilities that SEAL team 6 got the opportunity to kill Osama bin Laden instantaneously. Today, the Joint Special Forces are currently deployed to Iraq, Afghanistan, and other areas of the globe executing a range of military operations such as law enforcement and security to troubled nations.The Joint Special Forces provided the host nation civilian population tight security to be able to live a near-normal life. Besides, this military wing has embedded with the host nations’ civilian population and as such provides the willing local national’s education and training regarding law enforcement and security protocols to assist them in nation-building operations. It is common knowledge that security is a vital and necessary during stability and reconstruction operation. Without tight security, stability and reconstruction mission will not be achieved. The Joint Special Forces and related partners are continuing to project military interventions to ensure the United States, her Allies, its coalition partners ,the public and private organization as well as the local nationals who works side-by-side to accomplish the stability and reconstruction operation will succeed. The embedded Joint Special Forces can transmit via secured line of communication accurate intelligence information regarding the host nation civilian population, the local insurgents, and the transnational extremists’ current activities. Additionally, it can utilize the local nationals as human intelligence , a form of employment to earn money. Moreover, the Joint Special Forces utilizes network-centric warfare (NCW) to counter possible kinetic attack from insurgents. The NCW characterizes warfare in the information age (Groh, 2006). The link between the sensor and shooter is tailored with the right precision munitions to minimize collateral damage and prevent fratricide. Additionally, the Joint Forces utilizes NCW to destroy time-sensitive targets (TST). When close air support (CAS) is needed, the ground forces can reach back to the NCW and request for close air support. The CAS should first be used against positively identified targets that may be critical to the success of an operation (Gordon Trainor, 2006). Furthermore, CAS must be coordinated with the army systems to suppress enemy air defenses right before the CAS strikes. That requires close coordination between the air liaison officer and the fire support officer (Zimmermann, 2011). The synergistic effect between the ground f orces, the network centric-warfare, and the air capabilities are lethal. The system interconnectivity is a force multiplier. Air tankers form part of force multiplier. Aerial refueling capabilities have been used by the US forces to enhance rapid transport of critical capabilities to the Combatant Commander. The materials transported include fresh ground forces, ammunitions, crucial spare parts, medical personnel and medical supplies. The rapid medical air-evacuation of the severely burned and critically wounded warriors from the battlefield to Landstuhl Army Medical Center in Germany or to the burn unit at Brooke Army Medical Center in San Antonio, Texas saved thousands of lives. Local nationals that need further medical interventions have been flown to Germany or to the United States. This is one way of winning the heart and minds of the host nation civilian population, the most challenging terrain to win (Petraues, 2006). Petraues (2006) pointed out that the host nation civilian population is the decisive terrain. To win the hearts and minds of the host nation civilian population as well as the enemies, the United States and her partners must know what the local population needed most (AFDD 2-3, 2007). The Joint Special Forces and the Human Intelligence are the Combatant Commander’s priceless assets. These capabilities provide real situational awareness of the host nation’s current health status. Understanding the critical infrastructures that are mostly needed are crucial. Addiionally, understanding the host nation’s cultures, beliefs, religions, society, economic, ideology, and politics are critical elements that the U.S. political and military leadership leaders should know. Their grand strategy must fit into the host nation’s chronic problem in order to provide a long term solutions. The Joint Forces can train and educate the willing civilian population and work side by side building critical infrastructures such as the water system, schools, road and bridges, the economy, electrical grid, and medical facilities. This action promotes the feeling of ownership and boosts self-esteem (Natsios, 2005) Moreover, the U.S leadership must train, educate, organize and equip each warrior prior to deployment so that they can be knowledgeable and become experts in various areas. The expert warriors can decisively employ the art and science of capturing and winning the hearts and minds of the host nation’s population as well as reshaping the behavior of the captured enemies and enemies on the loose (Petraues, 2006). The AFDD 2-3 states that in a protracted war, winning entails depriving the enemy of the support of people reducing the influence of an enemy and overlooking the legitimacy of a competing ideology (AFDD, 2007). Conclusion and recommendations The successful counterinsurgency operation in El Salvador proved that military activities were subordinate to economic, political, and psychological activities . African Nations that continue to suffer from drought, famine, and diseases will continue to challenge the United States security at home and interests abroad. Additionally, the available natural resources should be explored and marketed and proceeds used to set up reliable water systems, food supplies, well-equipped medical facilities and schools. Moreover, the Joint Special Forces or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) should recruit, train, educate and equip the local people on matters of security and law enforcement. The new local recruits should know the cultures, languages, beliefs, and geography of places in order to effectively secure jobs such as security officers and law enforcement officers. The Joint Special Forces or NATO can also strengthen the nation’s Army through education, training and equipping them with current military technologies. The Unites States leadership must also expand the number of Special Forces and the Human Intelligence network. Th e warriors should continue to learn how to speak, read and write foreign languages in order to be effective in the battle field. The instruments of power such as diplomacy, information, military, economic, law enforcement, sharing of Intelligence reports, security, education and training ought to be integrated with the nine principles of reconstruction which include ownership, capacity building, sustainability, selectivity, assessment, results, partnership, flexibility and accountability in order to succeed in the stability and reconstruction operation. Finally, in order to defend the United States security at home as well as interests abroad, the U.S. military capabilities must be flexible and strong enough to fight and win wars against the surging 21st century enemies. Reference list Air Force Doctrine Document (AFDD) 2-3. Irregular Warfare, 1 August 2007. Groh, Jeffrey, â€Å"Network-Centric Warfare: Just About Technology?† 2006. Gordon, Michael, and Bernard Trainor. Cobra II: The Inside Story of the Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. New York: Pantheon Books, 2006 Handel, Michael. â€Å"Strategy: Past Theories, Modern Practice.† In Masters of War: Classical Strategic Thought, 1-16. Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2001. Metz, Steven. Learning from Iraq: Counterinsurgency in American Strategy. Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute, 2007. Natsios, Andrew. â€Å"The Nine Principles of Reconstruction and Development.† Parameters, 35, no. 3 (Autumn 2005): 4-20. Petraues, David. â€Å"Learning Counterinsurgency: Observations from Soldiering in Iraq.† Military Review (January-February 2006): 2-12. U.S. Department of Defense, The National Defense Strategy of the United States of America. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, June 2008. U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff. Joint Publication 3-0: Joint Operations. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 17 September 2006 [13 February 2008]. Zimmermann, Ralph Email Fe edback 12 August 2011. Zimmermann, Ralph Week 4 Feedback, 7 July 2011.

Roman Republic Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Roman Republic - Research Paper Example The differences between Catliana’s approach and those of other factions will also be assessed. The Caitlian conspiracy occurred during a background of economic and social problems that had been plaguing Rome for more than a year. Living conditions were deteriorating for many Italian peasants, levels of debt were rising and so were the numbers of the urban poor; additionally, small farms were declining and there was a shortage of men available to serve in the army.(Cicero and Shapiro ) A radical Roman politician named Lucius Sergius Catiliana was responsible for gathering together a group of Roman nobles who were disaffected, together with farmers who were disaffected in a conspiracy which aimed to overthrow the existing Government at Rome, so that they could take control of the Italian peninsula. This was a Republican Government that was in power while the proconsul Pompeii the Great was out campaigning in the Near east, together with a majority of the military units that had accompanied him there. Catiliana and his band of rebellious followers were present in the capital Rome, as well as in the province of Eturia. The existence f the conspiracy was uncovered by the conservative, optimate consul, Marcus Tullius Cicero and he successfully drive Catliana and his followers out of Rome. Church (no date) has provided a detailed description of the conspiracy that was organized by Catiliana in his book titled â€Å"Roman life in the days of Cicero†. The actual conspiracy was preceded by an earlier one that aimed to assassinate the new consuls. Church (no date) points out that Catliana was born into a noble family, which had however, fallen into poverty. During the days of Sulla, individuals from similar families that had been former noblemen but had descended into poverty, decided to come together to seize power once again. Catliana was cruel and wicked,

Crockett Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Crockett - Essay Example e of the product based on social trends that justified higher demand, which is no different than other retailers or special buyers (such as in a flea market or similar environments). It would be extremely difficult for Crockett to establish that there had been any kind of legitimate oral contract under contract law precedents. Even if the individuals had come to an oral agreement for final price and anticipated payment and delivery, Crockett would still have the burden of proof to attempt to make this supposed contract enforceable. In this case, the enforceability of the contract is negligible, if not completely impossible under the law. An oral contract that is valid has both parties agreeing on their unique performance under the agreement. Crockett would agree to the price established at $250,000 with Tubbs agreeing for delivery upon receipt of this exact amount. This particular type of contract would be a bit easier to establish proof being voided by Tubbs as the presiding judge would recognize the sudden market value increases to $500,000 as a product of the Miami Vice film. This would provide motive for not fulfilling the contractual obligation, even in its oral form, that would likely find enforceability in favor of Crockett. Unfortunately for Crockett, the law does not provide any establishment of legal dominance which would indicate that Tubbs must accept the first negotiated offer he discusses. It could be, though not implied in this case, that Tubbs has been negotiating similar pricing with certain potential buyers (a common occurrence for private sales of merchandise). Tubbs, unfortunately, is under no legal mandate to sell the car to Crockett for $250,000. In order for an oral contract to be enforceable by law, the selling party must make a commitment of acceptance, which is an oral agreement to abide by the fully negotiated conditions and terms of the agreement. Even though Crockett made an offer, illustrating an intention to enter a contract,

Analysis of Medical Malpractice Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Analysis of Medical Malpractice - Case Study Example Mr. Smith signed a consent form but only agreed to the operation because Mrs. Smith had privately threatened to divorce him if he did not. ?As a result of the operation (which was competently performed), Mr. Smith’s tear drainage improved, but he suffered a side effect of poor night vision. The risk of night vision problems was 2 percent, but many doctors consider it a minor problem as it has a limited adverse effect (due to the fact that people are usually asleep at ? night) and the operation is highly effective at improving tear drainage. Mr. Smith is a taxi driver and insists that he would not have had the operation had he known the risk. He is no longer able to work at night and has suffered a loss of income. ?In July, Mr. Smith visited Dr. Zeus, his GP, complaining that his left eye was still sore. Dr. Zeus suspected cancer of the eyelid. The computers were down so Dr. Zeus wrote a note to his receptionist asking him to request a referral to a specialist for Mr. Smith, bu t the note got lost. As a result, the referral was delayed by 4 weeks. ?In August, Mr. Smith was seen by Dr. Foster who diagnosed an aggressive malignant eyelid cancer (which was unrelated to Mr. Smith’s previous tear drainage problem). Expert evidence is that symptoms of the eyelid cancer would have been visible to a reasonably competent ophthalmologist when the tear drainage surgery was performed. ...Here, within different realms of medical malpractice, each aspect of the case will be discussed. Mr. Smith—who seeks financial compensation and complains about his treatment—will be advised to point out all of the following elements to the General Medical Council. II. Negligence Basically, there are four components or criteria of negligence which must be met in order to establish that a patient has a case for medical malpractice (or any kind of tort) (Donoghue v. Stevenson, 2011, pp. 1). Donoghue v. Stevenson was a classic case in the sense that the plaintiff had found snails in her bottled beverage, and claimed that the company owed her damages due to negligence. In a similar manner, Mr. Smith has every right to be upset with not only Dr. Foster, but Mrs. Smith, Dr. Zeus, and Dr. Zeus’s obviously incompetent staff. First of all, Dr. Foster should have mentioned that there was a 2 percent chance that his night vision might be affected. Failure to alert him to this fact is definitely negligent on his part. In addition, Mrs. Smith, his wife, is not only involving herself in the criminal behavior of blackmailing her husband to have the surgery or else divorce him—but she is also criminally liable as a tortfeasor (a person who commits a tort) because she was a consultant ophthalmologist overseeing the surgery superior to Dr. Foster, and she did not report the fact that she saw cancer on her husband’s eyelid.

Strategies to Motivate and Manage Employees

Strategies to Motivate and Manage Employees Introduction:- Motivation is one kind of behaviour of man which related with economics, psychology to qualified morality, initiation, direction, intensity and persistence with desire object, hobbies, goal and ideal activities. At present environment, success of any commercial organization depends on employees using their full talents motivation. There are available theories and practices, managers often view motivation as something which is mysterious to them. The core thing of motivation is to give people what they really want most from the work. The more the managers provide what they want, the more they can expect what they are looking for like productivity, quality, and services. A positive motivation philosophy and practice should improve productivity, quality, and service. Motivation helps people to achieve goals, to gain a positive perspective, to create the power to change, to build self-esteem and capability, to explore potentiality with creativity, to manage their own deve lopments and their own abilities. Description: There are few popular method of motivation, for example, An employee stock ownership plan (ESOP) is a way in which employees of a company can own a share of the company they work for profit sharing also one kind of motivation, scanlon plan, it is a type of gain sharing plan that pays a bonus to employees for incremental improvements, merit plan, gain sharing, annual bonus etc, these all are the way to reward people. Dessler discussed (1999), the scanlon plan is actually an early version of what today is known as a gainsharing plan, an incentive plan that engages many or all employees in a common effort to achieve a companys productivity objectives;any resulting incremental cost-saving gains are shared among employees and company. (588) According to Adair (2003), selecting the right man for right job, punishing the bad and rewarding the good, winning the goodwill of those under them, altering allies and helpers, keeping what they have gained, being strenuous and industrious in their own work (p.16). this strategy should be followed properly to get more from the employee.If we look at the disadvantages of motivation, actually there are no real disadvantages to successfully motivating employees, but there are many obstacles to overcome. Barriers may include unaware or absent managers, inadequate buildings, outdated equipment, and entrenched attitudes, for example: people might think that weare not getting paid extra to work harder etc. McGregors X and Y theories and Maslows hierarchy of need, although these theories date back some years, they are still valid today. the main theme of their theory, it will be helpful for building a climate of honesty, sincerity, and trust.Nickson said, (2007), performance management is about getting better results from the organization, (page, 169) People may want more status, higher pay, better working conditions, and flexible benefits. But it is easy to find out what really motivates employees by asking them in performance appraisals, attitude surveys, and informal conversations what they want most from their jobs. People might want, for example; more interesting work, more efficient bosses, more opportunity to see the end result of their work, greater participation, greater recognition, greater challenges, more opportunities for development, friendly environments, helps from others, respect and flexibility.Clearly one of the most important aspects of enhancing performance is perfo rmance appraisal.A recent survey by IRS (2005a) suggests that over 90 per cent of workplaces have some form of performance appraisal, Nickson (2007) Clegg (2003) said, It cant be so depressive that your staff, your peers, your boss, your friends and family can achieve more and yet they dont. Often all that is latching is the motivation succeed. Motivation is one of those terms that can mean very different things depending on exactly where you sit. According to the dictionary its about giving someone a motive or an incentive or rather more darkly, about inducing something. If I am motivating someone else, its easy to see that it is positive. Who can be motivated :-Anyone can be motivated and a trained up manager can be the one to do it. In fact, the potential for motivation starts with a responsible person .The cynical view of motivation is that it is a matter of subtle manipulation; that motivation is just a way of getting other people to do what you want them to do. Probably the hardest individual motivation is dealing with the high performer, some-one who is already doing the job well. So, why bother to motivate them at all? In part because of retention. Just become someone does a job superbly well, it doesnt mean that they want to stay in it. They are susceptible to outside lures that makes positive motivation to stay a real benefit for the company (page.4). Managers responsibility/role: Harzing (2004) said, there is an indication of a lack of commitment to the organization by employeesas as we have seen in the context of Africa (Blunt Jones, 1992).Corporations in Japan have been successful in harnessing the wider societal cllectivisism to corporate life, in order to foster commitment by employees in a reciprocal relationship with the corporation, (240) A manager should find someone doing something well and tell the person that the company is appreciating his work.. The manager should make sure the interest he showed is genuine which is without being bore or something just for showing people that he is interested to do this job . If the manager has ideas as to how employees work could be improved, he shouldnt shout them out, but help them to find their way to do more efficiently the same job because we know that, it is not necessary to be able do everything better. A manager should help to the employee to make it clear what levels of support employees can expect. The Manager should have proper trained up to be a mentor of the employee. they should know the position, time, situational demand to exchange any idea with them or any kind of teaching, training if required, sometimes managers need to keep silent, and wait for the proper time to teach or trained up the employee, because if every time managers try to teach them, it might be the cause of unexpected situation to the employee, so sometime managers should keep quiet to make a real situation to say something to the employee. According to Bell (1998), well timed silence hath more eloquence than speech (p124) The reason for Pay for performance, Dowling (2008) discussed, to increase the pay of those employees with superior performance, to reduce upward and pressure on base salaries, to detect those employees whose performance was unacceptable and take steps to remove them from the organisation (Page 351). A manager should be able to find out or identify factors that demotivates staff they may be physical like any kind of equipment, or psychological like boredom, unfairness, barriers to promotion, lack of recognition etc. Among these sorts of problems, some can be dealt with quickly and easily; others require more planning and time to work through. The fact that a manager concerned to find out what is wrong and do something about it is in itself a motivator. Working environment is one that is full of mistakes and penalizes error .Sometimes, it might happen that some mistakes promote as learning opportunities. However staff need to understand the kind and levels of support they can expect. Motivation practice and relationship building often hesitate because staff do not feel they are receiving adequate support. Many people say they are working for money and claim in conversation that their edge benefits are an incentive. But money actually comes low down in the list of motivators, and it doesnt motivate for long . Edge or fringe benefits can be effective in attracting new employees, but benefits rarely motivate existing employees to use their potential more effectively. Actually company should consider policies, that affect flexible work, reward, promotion, training and development, and participation, Dowling (2008). Rewards impact: As clegg said (2000), Reward people and recognition are important tools for any organization or work places .Reward can vitally enhance employees morality with explore potentiality through the organization and increase the realization of belongings of the employees. though a great deal of research has been conducted on merit pay, employees who have worked under a merit pay system have been given little opportunity to express what is in their mind about the job and what they think of this reward system. As the definition of merit, it seems relatively straightforward, for example, in the context of retention, promotion; since everyone who is meritorious can be rewarded, there is no need to compare different kinds of achievement. The paper reports on a performance-based pay plan implemented in a large company and employees reactions to the plan. Employees should have the right t to say their honest opinions on merit pay and indicate whether they believed the concept to be worthwhile. Th e reply was resoundingly positive, with forceful support for the idea of merit-based compensation. The effective use of money as a motivator, employees attach a high value to pay, employees believe good performance will result in higher pay, employees have enough control over the job and superior performance to more positive than negative result. Dessler (1999) told in his discussion, remuneration, benefits and rewards are ways in which an organisation recognises and remunerates its employees.Financial rewards such as salary, merit increases, benefits and employee bonuses can reinforce desirable or undesirable behaviours.For example, term based reward that have been well designed help to reinforce and encourage team behaviours.Individual recognitiosn by a manager as a, wel done;can be also help to encourage and reinforce positive behaviours.However, an organisation that encourages term based behaviours but rewards individuals will find it difficult to institute a teaming culture. (4 20). Reward system and designing In corporate culture where non-management employees earn raises through seniority only, there is always a group calling for merit raises. The common tendency to take it easy is greatly increased by bringing a number of men together on similar work and at a uniform standard rate of pay. When a naturally energetic man works for a few days beside a lazy one, the logic of the situation is unanswerable. A question can comes in the energetic employees mind that is why should I work hard when that lazy one gets the same pay that I do. that sentiment expressed in practically so many employees mind. But the fact is that their supervisors and co-workers do not share their self-assessment.Performance-related pay is a method of remuneration that links pay progression to an assessment of individual performance. Pay increases awarded through are Performance-related pay normally consolidated into basic pay although sometimes they involve the payment of non-consolidated cash, while the focus of this factsheet is individual, consolidated Performance-related pay as a means of pay progression, Performance-related pay can be defined more broadly to include many differing systems that link individual and group performance to pay, as for example bonus schemes, Dr.Gilam (2004). How a manager measure performance and what should be the strategy of rewarding strategy, in this case Dr.Gilam (2004)s opinion is, on first examination this model of strategic reward management seems highly rational, but it makes significant assumptions.First consider the main driving force of the rewads strategy.The business strategy and external operating environment Organisations business strategy Required employee behaviours Reward strategy Organisations core reward values Reward process Reward structure Internal Operating Environment Fig:-Key elements of reward system design Paying for Indivisual job performance is, for many organisations, at the heart of a reward strategy, this raises what for many employees is a highly contentious issue.the putting at risk of a employees think about pay in terms of base pay (Schuster and Zingheins, 1992): The fixed amount which traditionally has increased yearly to reflect inflation and often, length of service.Base pay will also change of course, upon promotion to a more responsible job.For some organisations base pay is of declining importance.This raises the question:how can the traditional reward objectives of attracting, retaining and motivating people be achieved while making the pay budget most cost effective.One of the key decisions that needs to be taken into account is whether to pay the variable elements as a lump sum bonus or to consolidate this into salary.The trend in the USA has been for variety pay to be one off cash bonus (Kanter 1987).This is hardly surprising given the cost saving that the organisati on enjoys.By not raising base pay, one-off cash bonuses do not affect future base pay increases or other associated payments such as overtime and, of course, pensions. (Page.436) However, in order for performance to be rewarded, it is first necessary to have an effective means of measuring that performance most commonly via a performance appraisal or review system. Using this approach, each employees performance is ranked on the scale, like ranging, for example, from unsatisfactory to superior. Some systems allow for management discretion in translating these scores into levels of pay rise. However, it is more usual for the performance element of the pay rise to be determined by the use of formula or a matrix system as an example each grade of employee, level of the employee or zone of work of the related employee to each of the performance categories. This may involve the use of a comparison ratio, this term given to the relationship between each employees current salary and the mid point of their grade. Thus for an employee at the mid point of their pay range, the comparison ratio would be hundred percent., Dr.Gilman (2004). Performance related pay in public sector: Considerable interest in linking pay to performance in the public sector dating back many years, this has proved harder to translate into practice. If we want to know the placeses where the performance pay does occur, as an answer, we will get the result is, it often takes the form of non-consolidated bonus, or team based incentives, individual merit pay etc. However, there have been recent years of a high-profile initiatives such as the introduction of a performance related pay scheme for employee, which has resulted in some discernible performance improvements. A number of distinct issues arise when introducing performance-related pay into a public sector setting, including the real difficulty of measuring individual effort in certain roles and actual result of the findings, Martin (2000). Moreover, public sector workers such as nurses, teacher, trainer are arguably motivated by a public service which could actually be undermined by some forms of performance-related pay, performanc e related pay in a public service setting can help employees to work more effectively rather than to work harder without a correct instruction, with the proper guideline which encouraging employees to focus on key objectives what they actually have to do.This is a very important part to perform at the best level .Again we can say that there are various forms of incentive pay and bonuses in the public sector, as an example, public sector workers do respond to financial incentives and, while responses are sometimes small, this reflects the fact that the incentives are also small. Any overall benefits to society in respect of higher levels of public service are harder to assess.So, whenevr the resposibility is small or less harder than other job, the incentives also become less, this is completely different in case of higher responsibility.The higher the responsibility the higher the incentive rate is. If we want to make effective Performance-related pay, employees need to perceive a c lear and prompt link between the effort expended and the reward that will be obtained, and it is necessary to feel that the level of reward on offer is based the effort. These are the main issues for employers implementing performance related pay, Martin (2000). The role of the higher manager is make sure to the effective implementation of Performance-related pay and necessary steps should be taken to involve this group at an early stage in arranging systems, and to ensure consistency and transparency while the management team assessing performance of the employee. Some time it can be happen that all managers make a certain proportion of staff as a group for each performance pay. The management should be careful in those serious, potential for unlawful discrimination for example by gender, ethnicity, discrimination. It is important for appraising managers to have proper training and awareness of these issues and for monitoring of merit pay awards to take place . Training and Development: Taining and practice can be helpful to perform very well., in this case Martin (2000) discussed, Reference information on matters such as employment legislation and training material on almost any business subject readily available through the interest and through the internet and through organisationss intranets.This means better informed personnel staff.When used for training, such material creater the potential for greater performance from all employees in their job areas. (page149) If we talk about distribution of pay awards, pay might not be the only motivating factor, even it might be proven that it is not so important for some kind of employees. The problem is occured during times of low inflation when the pay bill increase is usually limited to relatively small percentage. Even where the performance related pay may have a motivational impact for high performers, and it might be unacceptable to the people of the bottom performers, even they might be demotivated from that. Afte r a very careful assesment and careful consideration of pay distribution, the use of performance management techniques in support of performance related pay can help to tackle such kind of issues, it means it can be helpful for those who are bottom performer in the work place Martin (2000). In the case of identification of development needs, a major concern for human resource practitioners is that the when they will go for finalize the award like pay awards on the performance basis, review process may inhibit an open, clear and honest discussion of an employee, then training and development might be a needAs Armstrong (2006), in this case management development activities might need, the management development strategy will be concerned overall with what the organization intends to do about providing for its future management needs in the light of business plans.The startegy will be concerned with the roles of the parties involved and with the approaches the organization proposed to use to develop its managers. (pages 594-95) One solution is to separate the pay review aspect of performance measurement from the broader performance and development review. By arranging separate meetings some weeks or months to asses the performance of a employee and the development requirement can be set up.. But still it is ime-consuming in nature, the processes associated with Performance-related pay can be very time-consuming. In general, it is important to allow sufficient time away from day-to-day duties for managers and employees to be able to engage in the performance related pay process respectively. Armstrong discussed (2006), learning is the process by which a person acquires and develops new knowledge, skills, capabilities and attitudes.A williams (1998) defined it, learning is goal directed, it is based on experience, it impacts behaviour and cognition, and the changes brought about are relatively stable, (559). Performance-related pay is approaching to succeess, so an reliable and effective arrangements must be in place to define, measure, appraise and manage performance. The focus should be on encouraging high performance by effective performance management and appraisal systems and only this time higher on pay as an incentive to help achieve that goal. To create and maintain a sustainable high-performing workplace, the whole range of financial and non-financial rrewards or incentives should be be carefully planned to ensure that they are supported by Performance-related pay . If the manager cant afford significant pay differences between high and low performers, or if the manager believes that his staff is underpaid in relation to the cost of living in labor market, then he should postpone the implementation of merit pay for non-management employees, but it is in rare case. Instead of this, give everyone predictable seniority and reward the high performers with positive response, new resp onsibilities, and promotions will be more acceptable. A manager should put his managerial time and attention into better coaching and counselling of employees with performance problems, and more timely corrective action, including removal of poor performers who demoralize the rest of the workforce, or to find out the strength and weakness in the employee and find a solution to help them to come out from their limitations. Conclusion:- If the management is happy to implement merit pay, then they should separate the performance and pay reviews by at least several weeks or months. At the time of the pay review, management should set a pay decision on their performance which is progressing day by day or on progress observed toward the goals set in the performance review. Also the management should make sure that the pay ranges are wide enough to make the employee happy after winning the reward. In true sense, there is no pay system on earth that will satisfy all the employees. But a successful management team can have a pay system that supports their goal for a high-performing and motivated staff.. Thats why motivation is a basic and important tool for a commercial organization to go ahead with creative structure and innovative changing aspect of globalization. Reference: Adair, J (2003) Effective Strategic Leadership, Panbook, 2nd edition (page.16-38) Armstrong, M (2006), A handbook of Human resource management practice, Kogan page, UK, 10th edition, pages (559, 594-95) Bell, C (1998) Managers as Mentors, A bard press, Inc.production (page.124-135) Clegg, B (2000) Instant Motivation, Kogan page ltd.1st edition (page.4-25) Dessler (et.al), (1999), Human resource management, Prentice Hall, AustraliaPages (420-432, 588-590) Dr.Gilman, M (2004), The Management of Human Resourses, Pearson Education Limited, (Page.436- 4450) Dowling, P, Festing, M Engle, A (2008), International Human Resource management, Cengagae Learning, 5th edition (Page351-368) Harzing, A Ruysseveldt, J (2004), International Human resource management, Sage Publications, London, Page (240) Martin, M Jackson, T (2000) Personnel Practice, Cromwell Press, 2nd edition (page149-158) Nickson, D (2007), human resource management, Elsevier Publications, Uk, pages169-172 Bibliography: Barrett.R (1998) Liberating the corporate soul, Elsevier Prints. Cava, R (1990) Dealing with difficult people, Judy PiatkusLTd. Dr.Hunt, N (2007) Conducting staff appraisals, How to books Ltd.6th Edition Fowler, A (1998) Get more and more valu from your people, Crowell press. Forsyth, P (2001) Develpoing your staff, Kogan Page Limited. Fournies, F (2000), Coaching for improved work performance, R.R donnelly Sons company Fowler, A (1999), Good practice Induction, Short Run press, Exeter Leigh, D (1996) Practical Trainer Series, Kogan Page Ltd.2nd edition Mannering, K (2000) managing difficult people, How to books Ltd Rabinovici, M (1997) An expect eye on pay roll, International R D business education Ltd. Thomson, R (1998) People Management, Orion Business press.

Interpretation of Dreams: Freud Vs. Jung Essay -- Philosophy Psycholog

Interpretation of Dreams: Freud Vs. Jung Works Cited Not Included Many philosophers, psychiatrists, and doctors have tried to explain the role of the unconscious, mostly through interpreting dreams; two who lead the way in the field of dream interpretation were Sigmund Freud and his most famous pupil, Carl Jung. By reviewing these men's views we can come to a better understanding of the role of the unconscious. Both Freud and Jung believe in the existence of a conscious and unconscious mind. To better understand the difference between the two psychologists often use the analogy of an iceberg. The part of the iceberg above the surface of the water and can be seen by anyone is the conscious mind. It is the part of the mind we "live in" and contains information that we are aware of. The majority of the iceberg, which is below the surface of the water, is what Freud referred to as the "unconscious" and that Jung referred to as the "personal unconscious." This is where thoughts, feelings, urges, and temptations are that are difficult to bring out in consciousness. These are things that we do not associate with who we are and thus become repressed. The best ways to find these repressed feelings are through dreams. Sigmund Freud believed that a persons dreams fulfilled wishes and gave that person a sense of accomplishment to something they may not have been able to achieve. To prove Freud's theory he referred to a dream that he could produce as often as he wanted to. He explained that if he ate anything salty before he went to bed he would develop a thirst during the night which would wake him up. However, before he woke up he noted the he always had a specific dream first. This dream was that he was drinking cold water ... ... or model of which all things of the same type are representations or copies. This tendency for everyone in an area to perceive and act in certain ways is where Jung theory of collective unconscious comes from. Jung explains that what we dream, we have understanding of, be it intellectually or emotionally, which contradicts Freud's theory of unconsciously fulfilling wishes completely. Both Freud and Jung have there own views on dream interpretation, combine the two and it seems that we can come to a better understanding of the importance of our dreams. It seems that you cannot interpret a dream solely using Freud's theory or visa a versa with Jung's theories. Combining the two would offer a non-bias, well rounded interpretation which could encompass both, wish fulfillment, as Freud proposed, and consciously intending to create your dreams, as Jung believed.

Melanie Klein Essay

Melanie Klein is considered as one of the greatest psychoanalyst of her time even though she remains little known to American psychologists. Other women psychoanalysts including Anna Freud, Karen Horney, and Helene Deutsch are well known irrespective of the fact that the contribution of Melanie Klein to the field of psychology was by far greater than theirs (Donaldson, 2010). Melanie Klein major contribution to psychology was her distinct model which led to the development of a new school of psychoanalysis known as object relations theory. This school of thought places the relation of the mother and the infant at the core of its analysis in explaining personality development. She was born in Vienna Austria in the year 1882 in a middle class Jewish family. Melanie Klein was unable to complete her education due to family financial constrains and was forced to marry at a tender age. She is said to have suffered from depression and ‘nerves’ which was partly attributed to her domineering mother during her childhood. Melanie was able to resume her studies in psychoanalysis later in life (Grosskurth, 1986). This paper shall look at the life and achievements of Melanie Klein in the field of psychology. Early Years: Melanie Klein was born in the year 1882 to Dr. Moriz Reisez ad Libusa Deutsch. Melanie had closer relationship to her mother than her father. The father passed away when Melanie was just eighteen whereas the mother died in 1914 (Donaldson, 2010). In their family, religion was second fiddle though they maintained that they were atheists. Melanie never denied her Jewish roots and it is said that she never held those who denied their religiosity in high regard. She is also said to have encouraged parents to impart religious teachings to their children in accordance with their own beliefs (Grosskurth, 1986). Two of her siblings passed away when Melanie was still very young. Sidonie who was her second oldest sister passed away but she was very helpful to the young Melanie as she taught her how to read and write before she died whereas Emanuel, her only brother was also of great help to her. Emanuel was a talented pianist and writer and he taught Melanie in Greek and Latin. The knowledge she gained from her siblings was very helpful in her education and indeed aided her in passing entrance exams in the various schools that she attended (Segal, 1980). Melanie was engaged at a tender age of nineteen to Arthur Stephen Klein who was a friend to her brother. They were engaged for two years during which time Melanie was taking her studies in art and history at Vienna University. Melanie was not able to enroll for a medical study so as to follow her husband who was always on the move due to his business life. This meant that she could not graduate with an academic degree. In her career, most of her work was disregarded due to lack of authenticity in medical knowledge. Melanie was forced to keep moving with her husband and this made her lonely missing home very much. However, the birth of her first two children, Melitta in 1904 and Hans in 1907 made her somehow happy (Hergenhahn, 2001). Melanie’s life was greatly transformed in the year 1910 when her family moved to Budapest. In Budapest, she was able to know about the psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud on dreams. This experience changed her lifetime interest as psychoanalysis became her new field of interest. She began a course in psychoanalysis under the mentorship of Sandor Ferenczi. Ferenczi was encouraged by Melanie’s interest in psychoanalysis and urged her to psychoanalyze her children (Hergenhahn, 2001). In the year 1917, she met Freud during the meeting between the Hungarian and Austrian psychoanalysts’ societies. In 1919, she presented her paper entitled ‘The Development of a Child’ to the Hungarian Society and consequently asked to become a member of the Budapest society. In the same year, Melanie and her three children moved to Slovakia where they stayed with her in-laws as her husband had departed for Sweden. In the year 1922, the couple divorced (Segal, 1980). Melanie was introduced to Karl Abraham who encouraged her analysis of her own children. During this time she was able to join the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society. Karl Abraham on his part was developing the concept of death instincts by Freud in his own ways focusing on oral and anal sadistic impulses. These ideas were to influence Melanie in her work as seen in her in regard to children’s play. Following the death of Abraham in 1926, Melanie moved her base to London where she joined the British Psychoanalytic Society (Grosskurth, 1986). While in Berlin and after the influence from Karl Abraham, Melanie became dissatisfied with the views held by Ferenczi. However, it is worthy noting that both Ferenczi and Abraham influenced her work. She had received encouragement and learned the significance of the unconscious dynamics from Ferenczi. However, Ferenczi never practiced negative transference and on rare occasions did held neutral positions with his patients. To Melanie, Abraham gave the true picture of psychoanalysis. Though she borrowed the concept of introjections from Ferenczi, she still considered herself as an ardent follower of Abraham and Freud (Segal, 1980). Following the death of Karl Abraham in the year 1926, Melanie’s work was often criticized. Anna Freud had commenced her studies on children at around the same time and with their methodologies being uniquely different, the Berlin Society regarded Melanie’s work as unorthodoxy (Segal, 1980). Earlier on in 1925 during the presentation of her paper on the technique of child analysis in Salzburg, she had met Ernest Jones, who regarded her analysis as the future of psychoanalysis. She had been invited in give lectures on the subject in London and spent three weeks giving lectures in the house of Dr. Adrian Stephen. After a difficult time in Berlin, Melanie opted to move to England where she was readily accepted by the British Psychoanalytic Society. In England, she continued with her works on many areas in psychoanalysis which included the death instinct and the Oedipus complex (Hergenhahn, 2001). Melanie’s Contribution to Psychoanalysis: Melanie Klein is considered as the most influential psychoanalyst after Freud following her contributions to the field of psychoanalysis. She articulated the pre-history of childhood development whereby she outlined the chronology of events during childhood development as integration of the chaotic desiring world of the developing child and the reality of the world. Melanie considered the infant’s world to be threatened right away from the start by unbearable anxieties (Segal, 1980). To her, these anxieties emanated from the death instincts in the infant and were important ion the development of the child. These anxieties were overwhelming to the infant and the infant resorted to the defenses that would free him/her from these anxieties. The defenses employed by the infant included projection, denial, withdrawal, splitting, and omnipotent control. Through these, the infant is able to expel the threatening objects from inside the body and thereby preserving the good objects (Sayers, 1991). The most basic of these processes were the projection and the introjection which defined the infant’s maiden and primitive attempts to draw a line between him/her and the world among other things. At first the objects are those whose existence for the infant was determined by their functionality in the child’s view. However, upon maturation, the infant was able to ‘introject’ both the ‘bad’ and the ‘good’ objects (Sayers, 1991). Also it should be noted that through the process of progressive internalization, the fragmentary objects were internalized into the self and consequently became forerunners of the super-ego. According to Melanie, the progressive internalization which involved introjection, projection, and re-introjection was continuous and cyclic. This led to increasing â€Å"synthesis as the infant gradually attained greater degrees of reality testing, differentiation, and control over her own psyche† (Science. jrank. org, 2010, para 4). Melanie divided the pre-oedipal childhood development into ‘paranoid/schizoid’ and ‘depressive’ positions. The paranoid position was during the first months in the child’s life when the child was helpless. According to Melanie, deprivation, the experience of need, and frustration though came from the infant’s own body, were seen to be persecutory at this time and the child had to respond by expelling them outside the body. Earlier objects such as the breast were categorized as either bad or good depending on how they were perceived [nurturing or destructive]. In this way, the infant is believed to have been taking in (introjecting) or dispelling (projecting) objects in relation to their perceived safety or danger. The infant would take in and preserve the feelings in the external world regarded as ‘good’ while expelling the ‘bad’ ones (Sayers, 1991). The depressive position corresponded to the second 6 months of life and extended the trends that had been established during the first 6 months in life. Melanie argued that during this period the infant was capable of bridging the gap between the ‘good’ and ‘bad’ objects and also between his/her personal experiences of love and hate that created them. During this time the child is competent of ambivalence and that his/her awareness steadily expand to include not only internal feelings but also the external object world and the mother. The infants become aware of their own disparaging desires and attempts to inhibit these impulses due to fear of their destructive nature (Science. jrank. org, 2010,). The awareness of the aggressive tendencies towards the objects/mother and the efforts to inhibit these impulses makes the infant to be more tolerant for ambivalence which forms the basis for mediation between regarding the needed and loved object and the destructive impulses that would destroy the object. This leads to a relationship between the infant and the mother and other objects. Melanie looked at both the paranoid/schizoid and depressive positions as normal development phases towards achievement of a more mature object relation by the children. She believed that fixation in these positions was responsible for the future psychopathological development in children (Klein, 1984). Melanie considered the child’s efforts to engage in the binding and modification of the persecutory and depressive anxieties as the core struggle in the developmental process of the infants. This was seen as the chief forerunner to virtually all the mental development of the child. During this progressive process, the anxieties are â€Å"modified ‘structuralization’ increased, and the anxieties and impulses that gave rise to them were themselves diminished† (Science. jrank. org, 2010, para 9). To Melanie, all the defenses were directed in opposition to the anxieties and that the earliest defenses such as splitting were the basis of repression. Her theoretical framework of objects relations also identified the oedipal complex and the development of the super-ego during the earlier months in life (Klein, 1984). Her theory was able to attribute to the infants complex emotions much earlier than was acceptable in Freudian analysis. Her ideas about schizoid defense mechanism in particular brought about a controversial debate within the British Psychoanalytic Society to determine whether ‘Kleinianism’ [referring to her thoughts] was truly psychoanalysis or not. Compromise was arrived at to allow the teaching of the two schools of thoughts as Kleinianism and Freudianism. Melanie Klein was therefore the first ever psychoanalyst to challenge Freud’s take on the psychoanalytic development and still remained in the psychoanalytic society (Donaldson, 2010). Conclusion: Melanie Klein’s contribution to the field of psychoanalysis can not be ignored. Perhaps she can be considered as the greatest female psychoanalyst of all times considering that she brought in a new dimension to the psychoanalytic studies through the object relations theory. She ventured in a unique study which involved the study of her very own children at a time when no one had conducted such a study. Though she had no medical background in a medical field, her zeal and interest in psychoanalysis were the drive to her achievement in the new field. She was determined to pursue her unique model of the psychoanalytic study even when many orthodox Freudians would not support her views. Melanie shall remain to be one of the greatest psychoanalytic that ever graced the field of psychoanalysis. Reference: Donaldson, G. , (2010). Melanie Klein, Psychoanalyst (1882-1960). Retrieved on 6th July 2010 from; http://www. psych. yorku. ca/femhop/Melanie%20Klein. htm Grosskurth, P. (1986). Melanie Klein: Her world and her work. New York: Knopf. Hergenhahn, B. R. (2001). An Introduction to the History of Psychology. California: Wadsworth Klein, M. (1984). The psycho-analysis of children (A. Strachey, Trans. ). R. Money-Kyrle (Ed. ), â€Å"The writings of Melanie Klein† (Vol. 2). New York: Free Press Sayers, J. (1991). Mothers of psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. Science. jrank. org, (2010). Psychoanalysis – Melanie Klein and Object Relations. Retrieved on 6th July 2010 from; http://science. jrank. org/pages/10906/Psychoanalysis-Melanie-Klein-Object-Relations. html Segal, H. (1980). Melanie Klein. New York: The Viking Press.

The Control of Media in the Gulf War Essay Example

The Control of Media in the Gulf War Essay Example The Control of Media in the Gulf War Essay The Control of Media in the Gulf War Essay The Control of Media in the Gulf War How much do you think you know about the world around you? What if everything you viewed was a lie? During the Gulf War, the White House and the military seized and screened every news report, determining the images and information the media would relay to the public. The result was that the president and the military framed the debate, set the public agenda, supplied television with many of the defining images of the war, and enjoyed very favorable press coverage throughout the conflict . If you ask most Americans what they remember about the Gulf War, they will tell you they remember the super intelligent smart bombs, SCUD missiles, Patriot missiles, and Saddam Hussein is a very bad man, but that is only part of the story. (Muellar, 22) The Gulf War was both the most widely cover war in history and one in which the U. S. government imposed the greatest Restrictions on the press short of outright censorship. Bush’s announcement of war to the nation on January 16 was watched by the largest American audience in history, over 120 million people tuned in. Without the Cold War or the â€Å"Americans in Danger† theme to frame the crisis, the Gulf War administration needed to work harder though the media to convince both the public and the congress that the use of military force was necessary in January. (Trevor. 185) With television technology providing instant transference of images from the front, something had to be done to prevent another Vietnam. (Muellar, 20) On December 14, Pete Williams , Pentagon spokesperson, dropped the first on the media, issuing a memorandum to news organizations that spelled out the press ground rules in the event of hostilities . All interviews with service members will be on the record . Security at the source is the policy. In event of hostilities, media products will be subject to security review prior to release. You must retain with your military escort at all times, until released, and follow instructions regarding your activities. These instructions are intended only to facilitate troop movement, ensure safety, and maintain operational security. In a departure from Pentagon assurances and from existing policy, the press would cover Desert Storm exclusively rom pools. Pentagon used pools for the purpose of secrecy on the grounds of national security. The media expected to be able to roam battlefields, as a small number of reporters had in Vietnam, but in fact, the importance of secrecy made this unacceptable from the military’s stand point. The military developed this ad hoc system of combat pools controlled by the military in conjunction with media which were taken to particular areas of news co verage. Yetiv, 131) As of January 12, plans called for 2 eighteen member pools, consisting of reporters from television, newspapers, news, magazines, and the wire services. One would cover the Army, one the Marines. No â€Å"unilateral† or independent coverage would be permitted. The military would detain and take back to Dhahran any, journalists found within 100 miles of the war zone. Saudis were also very reluctant to have journalists running around looking for stories. The Saudis later strengthened this rule by making the punishment for unilateral reporting arrest deportation. In their rush to get their people to the Gulf and into pools, the only way they could count on being able to report at least some of the action their umber one goal after- they had been forced to comply with the pentagon’s rules. And guidelines before fully realizing the impact they had been forced to comply with the Pentagons rules and guidelines before fully realizing the impact they would have. (Yetiv, 132) There were two options open to journalists wishing to cover Desert Storm. First, journalist could accept the pool system and work out of Dhahran, watching televised briefings. These press briefings were another way the Pentagon controlled the news. Press briefings were carried out on net work and global news. This achieved virtual domination of public imaginations regarding the nature, cause, and success of the war. They didn’t want it to be Vietnam all over again. No left-leaning journalists were going to make the U. s armed forces look like bad guys. In addition to watching these press briefings they would gather pool reports until a slot in the pool opened. This route assured journalists material for daily story and a chance for better once they got a pool slot. On the downside, covering the war from a hotel is not most journalists’ idea of a good time the real story was out in the desert. And worse, being in a pool was guarantee of a good story, because it meant letting the military dictate where, to go and what to see. Pools had no opportunities to observe combat, see war damage, interview soldiers or civilians, and all footage had to be approved by military censors before publications. The other option was to reject the pool system and â€Å"go unilateral† venturing out into the desert, evading media hostile military types and looking for a unit that would agree to let a journalist do a story. Of the 1400 or so journalists occupying Saudi Arabia by the ground war, only a handful chose to attempt unilateral reporting because it was dangerous. Several journalists wound up hostages of the Iraqis, many got lost repeatedly, often ending up in less desirable areas like minefields. Even if a journalist did manage to locate U. S. ilitary unit, there was a good chance of being detained and sent back to Dhahran with the threat of deportation by the Saudis. (Yetiv, 132) The Gulf War was the first fully censored made for TV war in history it was pretty much a reality show where reporters would be forced to cover emotional issues such as the troops in their tents smiling and bonding with each other. And if coverage was not that, it was a light show, the amazing colors in the sky, like fireworks of the bombs falling on the Iraqis. What we saw was images of our soldiers dedicated, cheerful, and confident. We saw the hardships of those loved ones at home waiting for their spouses and family members to return home heroes. We did not see Iraqi victims. The impression of a bloodless war was partly due to the emphasis placed upon so called smart weapons technology in Pentagon briefings and media coverage. While the performance of the smart weapons was apparently reliable and accurate as military reports indicated, their overall importance in the war (in terms of total tonnage of weapons dropped) was not nearly as great as their symbolic function in helping generate the facade of high tech warfare. We were not told that smart bombs constituted only 10 percent of the total bombs dropped in Iraq or that 70 percent of our bombs missed their targets. (Thrall, 196-199) Furthermore there were virtually no images of human death carried by the media. Instead, coverage tended to emphasize property damage bridges blowing up military bunkers exploding and other forms of non human destruction. During and immediately after the war, the US military avoided providing a comprehensive and reliable accounting of Iraqi casualties. Initial estimates however placed them above 100,000 with an additional 100,000-200,000 civilian death. In fact due to the widespread destruction caused by the U. S bombing Greenpeace would have considered what Americans did to be terrorism. (Clark, 122) The amusing part is the American people believed they received good news coverage. Media celebrities working in the pools were just entertainers who read lines largely written by the Pentagon for national television audience. The media became a cheer leader for the war. In 1991 TV networks monopolized public access to events that made the news. Ramsey, 130) The media had financial relationships with the military and weapons industries. It depended on major corporate advertising, political campaign, contributions and it close alliance with political parties and leaders made the American media virtually one with the government. Media exert its power to persuade public to support war, while it demonized Saddam Hussein, and portrayed Bush as a courageous leader. The Massive Media campaign to persuade the public righteousness of the American cause and conduct includes an intense promotion of the US military action. It justified violence by creating hatred toward and dehumanizing Iraq and concealing or misrepresenting anything conflicted with that purpose. This caused people to celebrate the slaughter of tens of thousands of defenseless human beings, ignore crimes against humanity, and then blame those who are dying for their plight. Even if a reporter wanted to tell the truth, their employer wouldn’t allow it . (Woodword, 3-11) Media never analyzed the enormous volume of evidence that the US planned the destruction of Iraq long before August 2, 1990. Nor did the media ever speculate on vast amounts of evidences showing that the US with help Kuwait was trying to provoke Saddam Hussein into attack. Media never yelled cover up. They just ignored the story and falsely claimed Iraq planned to invade Saudi Arabia to dominate oil reserves. Media would also describe powerful Iraq’s military is while its population is only 6 % of the United States. (Denton, 33) Demonization of Saddam Hussein was a continuing process by the government and the media from early 1990. Headlines appeared in the Washington Post such as the following: Monster in the Making, from unknown to â€Å"Ach Villain in a Matter of Days† and â€Å"The Demonization of Saddam Hussein†. (Prince, 253) Such propaganda has always been used to dehumanize an enemy so that their deaths seem desirable. It is essential to emotionalize a soldier to kill, the public approved of it to kill. The pentagon’s press would even lie to loved ones, families about the death of the soldiers. They would tell them stories of how the soldier died from enemy fire, heroically defending freedom, when the death was actually a mistake. To learn the truth the family would have to ask a soldier who actually witnessed the truth. How could the government lie about something as precious as life? (Prince, 253) If a government can portray a war with all the positives and none of the negatives, then people can go to their war rallies and wear their yellow ribbons and no worry about the opposing side. If a government can completely control the information disseminated by civilian news media then there really is no point to having civilian journalists risking their lives for stories they can’t even broadcast. It begs the question of how far the military will go to cover up stories and events that they do not want the world to know. It is scary to think about it, the United States military could be committing war crimes without the knowledge of American people or United Nations. War crimes that could be horrific as those committed in Bosnia or Kosovo, those of which we were involved in military actions to stop. Who knows how far it could go in the future? Could we someday be involved in committing genocide in China? We may never know if the civilian news organizations have their hands tied by the government. (Ramsey, 134)

Should the Drinking Age Be Low essays

Should the Drinking Age Be Low essays During the last thirty years, the American government has done there best to keep teenagers under strict drinking laws. This is due to the fact that teenagers have an irresponsible reputation when it comes to substance abuse. The drinking age was raised from eighteen to twenty-one within the last two decades, and although I do not agree with the change, I can see how much controversy is involved. At the age of eighteen you are given many privileges and responsibilities of an adult, but are not allowed to drink legally for three more years. To me, that does not seem fair, but the arguments made against lowering the drinking age are viable. At the age of 18, American men are required to enroll in the army, and fight for their country during times of war. This implies that they are mature enough to handle facing death, which is something that most adults are not prepared for, even in their old age. One of the main arguments for raising the drinking age was that teenagers were not drinking reasonably. I believe that if you are mature and responsible enough to fight in a gruesome war, then that should enable them to drink. However, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration did a survey on Drug Abuse, [which] shows disappointing results in the fight against youth alcohol use, reporting an estimated 9.7 million youth (27.5 percent) aged 12 to 20 reported drinking alcohol in the month prior to the survey. Of these, 6.6 million (18.7 percent) were binge drinkers and 2.1 million (6 percent) were heavy drinkers (Webb 1). This contradicts my theory that young Americans can drink responsibly, and is a g ood argument against the possibility of lowering the drinking age back to eighteen. People are able to vote at the age of 18, enabling them to participate in making decisions about who will run the country. This privilege is usually the thing that separates teenager ...

Risk Management (article Critique) Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Risk Management (article Critique) - Case Study Example CITS worked towards two different options of achieving the MIS system - procuring a ready to deploy software and in-house development of the MIS software from scratch. After assessment of pros & cons and the cost benefit analysis CITS decided to develop the MIS system in-house. However, this decision caused trouble times due to attrition of key people and lack of specialists. The project was finally completed with the help of final year students and an internal mentor who took the responsibility as part time assignment. The article finally claims that the MIS system was deployed successfully. The fundamental problem in this case study was lack of appropriate Risk Management. The analysis of the two modes of MIS deployment presented on pages 45 & 46 (Rodrigues. and Govinda. 2003. 45-46) is not promising because it doesn't take into account any risk analysis. The decision of developing in-house was taken purely on financial benefits which again may not have considered the enormous hidden costs in the in-house development process. Field & Keller (1998: 117) presented that after the risks are assessed and identified, the actions that can be taken are risk avoidance, risk reduction, risk transference, contingency planning and risk acceptance. The project plan of CITS largely ignored these aspects of risk mitigation and hence faced serious obstructions to the project due to attrition of key people and reluctance of end users in the data entry process. The documentation by CITS doesn't even include the project risk management part of the overall planning (Rodrigues. and Govinda. 2003. 46). Hence, the CITS was greeted with multiple surprises especially due to the people specific issues. The attrition of the system analyst at a time when the decision of developing the MIS in-house was taken recently must have left the CITS with only the high level design documents. At this stage a lecturer was engaged to take the project further who later on utilized his final year students to carry out the coding. The author hereb y argues that it is very unlikely that the low level designs and coding standards were established effectively for the project and hence the students might have used ready to compile codes that are available on the Internet. From the author's perspective, a project managed in this mode might have lived with high risks related to bugs, quality, data security, etc. (although not mentioned specifically in the case study). Hence, the Project Manager might have taken the route of risk acceptance given that he was able to develop & execute a contingency plan that largely worked for him. Comparing with the IS checklist by Cadle & Yeates (2004: 257-261), it appears that many aspects of the checklist were not planned by CITS. For example, the acceptance criteria, developer's skills, architecture aspects, testing methodologies, staffing requirements, etc, were not analyzed effectively in the MIS strategic plan documented by CITS. The entire plan

Unit 7 Seminar Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Unit 7 Seminar - Research Paper Example While validity helps in determining the types of tests to be used and ensure that researchers make use of methods that are ethical and effective, reliability plays a critical role in psychological tests. Reliability ensures that the test is valuable by maintaining consistency of the outcomes. Before locating the most suitable measurement tools, assess what the clients should know very well, can understand and are able to do. Plan the intent and scope of the assessment by considering the expected experiences after the assessment. Put into consideration how and if the assessment method will determine all the dimensions. Format the assessment instrument to make a clear meaning. When there is a change of program estimates associated with a change in items, then program drift occurs across several administrations. If program values show inconsistency than expected because of measurement errors only, then it cannot be assumed that program values are invariant in testing occasions. Therefore, this may limit the use of the item and warrant its removal from the bank of items. Presence of program drift is mostly associated with construction of irrelevant variance that affects the performance on the item. Due to this systematic performance shift for a long time, cases of program drift may have negative consequences on an assessment program and may ultimately affect inference validity generated from the test scores. This is a common challenge in research. I think both have the same weight. This is because they increase accountability in the political realm. These guidelines help in making decision on evaluation methods to use than reducing errors in